Having been traditionally operated by monopolies, telecom networks were gradually and successfully opened to competition as from the 1990s. In 2022, there are four major fixed and mobile operators competing fiercely with each other on the consumer market in France. This situation means that prices are amongst the lowest in Europe with huge investments being made. Competition is not as strong on th... Lire la suite
Public consumption encompasses the services provided to households by government departments. In the first half of 2020, it fell significantly in France and the United Kingdom while remaining stable or rising in Germany, Italy and Spain. These divergences are essentially due to different manners of measuring public service activity during the lockdowns. They argue in favour of prudent interpretati... Lire la suite
Since the 1990s, China has experienced a strong development of its equity and bond markets, structured around the Shenzhen and Shanghai markets. However, their liberalisation and opening to foreign capital remain incomplete. In recent years, Chinese financial markets have undergone a series of reforms, with the dual objective of financing innovation and the ecological transition on the one hand, a... Lire la suite
In 2022, the rise in energy prices caused a significant loss of real income for France, a net importer of oil and gas. In this paper, the Directorate General of the Treasury estimates the gross cost of this shock prior to its propagation and behavioural changes. The various channels that can be used to mitigate real income loss and the support measures to address it are discussed, as is the distri... Lire la suite
The financial crisis of 2008-2009 underlined the importance of preserving financial stability, highlighting the need for new indicators to better understand the evolution of financial risks. Regulators and academics have developed the concept of the financial cycle to measure these vulnerabilities. In this study, DG Treasury presents indicators describing the evolution of the financial cycle for F... Lire la suite
The generalised catching up of the advanced countries by the large emerging countries has stalled since 2013. This slowdown in activity is structural in most countries due to the weakening of the dynamics of the factors of production (labour, capital, total factor productivity), which determine their potential growth. However, all major emerging countries have room to increase their potential grow... Lire la suite
A rapid and massive reduction in greenhouse gas emissions must make it possible to limit the effects of climate change. The success of decarbonisation will depend on the implementation of appropriate public policies aimed at reorienting the decisions of economic actors and supporting them. Given the uncertainties and complexity of the economic issues at stake, the understanding of the economic eff... Lire la suite
The IMF remains, as it has been since 2020, a central player in crisis response. Since its creation in 1944, it has been able to rethink its historical instruments such as the Special Drawing Rights and evolve its toolkit to respond to the shifting crises affecting its membership. Today, to continue to ensure the stability of the international monetary system, the IMF is seeking to strengthen its... Lire la suite
Bond debt of non-financial corporations (NFCs) has risen sharply since the 2008 financial crisis, driven in particular by favourable financing conditions and tighter banking regulation. While bond debt allows NFCs to diversify their sources of financing, it can be a source of vulnerability in the current context of high inflation and economic slowdown. In China, the market is still not very libera... Lire la suite
The global economy is facing headwinds, including higher energy prices and tighter monetary policies. It benefits from fiscal support and the gradual easing of supply pressures. As a result, global growth is expected to moderate in 2022 and 2023. The advanced economies would slow down but remain in growth. China would be penalised by the "zero Covid" strategy and Russia would record a sharp drop i... Lire la suite